brain derived basic fibroblast growth factor (1 24) (bovine) (trifluoroacetate salt)

Brain-derived basic fibroblast growth factor (1-24) (brain-derived bFGF) is a peptide fragment of brain-derived bFGF. bFGF is a peptide produced in bovine brain that is protective in a rat model of pressure-induced retinal ischemia. bFGF (1-24) corresponds to amino acid residues 1-24 of the full length peptide.

Human growth hormone-releasing factor acetate is a hypothalamic polypeptide and stimulates GH production and release by binding to the GHRH Receptor (GHRHR) on cells in the anterior pituitary[1].

Nonapeptide-1 acetate salt (158563-45-2 free base) (Melanostatine-5 acetate salt) , a peptide hormone, is a potent α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) antagonist, with an IC50 of 11 nM. Nonapeptide-1 acetate salt (158563-45-2 free base) , a peptide hormone, is a potent α-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) antagonist, with an IC50 of 11 nM.

Dynorphin A (1-10) acetate is an endogenous opioid neuropeptide, binds to extracellular loop 2 of the κ-opioid receptor. Dynorphin A (1-10) also blocks NMDA-activated current with an IC50 of 42.0 μM.

Epidermal Growth Factor binds to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and stimulates cell growth and proliferation. It is approved for the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers.

BIO-11006 acetate salt (901117-03-1 free base) is a polyglycosylated alanine rich C kinase substrate (MARCKS) inhibitor similar to MANS peptides.

β-Defensin-4 is a peptide with antimicrobial properties that protects the skin and mucosal membranes of the respiratory, genitourinary, and gastrointestinal tracts. It induces migration of monocytes in vitro when used at a concentration of 10 nM but does not affect migration of neutrophils and eosinophils. β-Defensin-4 (30 μg/ml) stimulates gene expression and production of IL-6, IL-10, CXCL10, CCL2, MIP-3α, and RANTES by keratinocytes. It also stimulates calcium mobilization, migration, and proliferation of keratinocytes when used at concentrations of 30, 10, and 40 μg/ml, respectively. β-Defensin-4 induces IL-31 production by human peripheral blood-derived mast cells in vitro when used at a concentration of 10 μg/ml and by rat mast cells in vivo following a 500 ng intradermal dose. It also inhibits growth of E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus with lethal concentration (LC) values of 5, 12, and 15 μM, respectively, of S. carnosus (MIC = 4.5 μg/ml), and of C. albicans with a minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) value of 7.5 μM.

Brain Natriuretic Peptide (1-32), rat acetate (BNP (1-32), rat acetate) is a 32 amino acid polypeptide hormone synthesized by ventricular cardiomyocytes as a result of myocardial cell stretching (cardiomyocyte distension)[1].

ACTH (3-24) (human, bovine, mouse, ovine, porcine, rabbit, rat), the fragment spanning amino acids 3-24 of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), serves as a research tool in studying a range of illnesses, such as cancer, immune diseases, and cardiovascular disease [1].

β-Casomorphin (1-6), bovine is a opioid-like bioactive peptide of β-Casomorphin.

Parathyroid Hormone (1-34), bovine TFA, a potent agonist of the parathyroid hormone (PTH) receptor, elevates calcium and inorganic phosphate levels in vivo. This compound is employed in osteoporosis research [1].

Klotho-derived peptide 1 (KP1) (56-87), a peptide originating from the human Klotho protein, disrupts TGF-β signaling by binding to TGF-β receptor types 1 and 2 (TGFBR1 and TGFBR2; Kds = 1.41 and 14.6 µM, respectively). Preincubation with KP1 at a concentration of 10 µg/ml hinders the TGF-β-induced escalation of fibronectin and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) levels in NRK-49F rat fibroblasts. Furthermore, in vivo studies reveal that KP1, administered at 1 mg/kg per day, preferentially accumulates in damaged kidneys, leading to significant reductions in serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels, indicators of improved kidney function. Additionally, it decreases kidney fibrosis in mouse models of unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) and unilateral ischemia-reperfusion injury-induced renal fibrosis.

FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR, BASIC, HUMAN is a useful organic compound for research related to life sciences. The catalog number is T8680 and the CAS number is 62031-54-3.

Sulfatides are endogenous sulfoglycolipids with various biological activities in the central and peripheral nervous systems, pancreas, and immune system. They are produced from the combination of ceramide and UDP-galactose in the endoplasmic reticulum followed by sulfation in the Golgi apparatus. The ceramide portion contains variable fatty acid chain lengths, which are tissue- and pathology-dependent. Sulfatides are primarily found in the myelin sheath of oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells, with smaller chain lengths predominant during development and longer chain lengths predominant in mature cells. They accumulate in the lysosome of patients with metachromatic leukodystrophy, a disorder characterized by arylsulfatase A deficiency. Sulfatides are also located in pancreatic β-cells and inhibit insulin release from isolated rat pancreatic islet cells, suggesting a potential role in diabetes. Sulfatides can induce inflammation in glia in vitro and certain sulfatides, such as C24:1 3'-sulfo-galactosylceramide, can induce an immune response in vitro in mouse splenocytes. Sulfatides (bovine) (sodium salt) is a mixture of isolated bovine sulfatides.

Kisspeptin-54 is a peptide ligand of the orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR54 (Kis = 1.81 and 1.45 nM for rat and human receptors, respectively).1 It is a 54 amino acid peptide encoded by the metastasis suppressor gene KISS-1. Kisspeptin-54 induces calcium mobilization in CHO-K1 cells expressing rat and human receptors (EC50s = 1.39 and 5.47 nM, respectively). It also induces arachidonic acid release in CHO cells expressing rat and human GPR54 in a concentration-dependent manner. Kisspeptin-54 (10-1,000 nM) inhibits insulin secretion from isolated mouse pancreatic β-cells in the presence of 2.8 mM, but not 11.1 mM, glucose.2 Kisspeptin-54 (1-5 nmol, i.c.v.) increases serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) in mice, an effect which is reversed by the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GNRH) antagonist acycline.3References1. Kotani, M., Detheux, M., Vandenbogaerde, A.L., et al. The metastasis suppressor gene KiSS-1 encodes kisspeptins, the natural ligands of the orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR54. J. Biol. Chem. 276(37), 34631-34636 (2001).2. Vikman, J., and Ahrén, B. Inhibitory effect of kisspeptins on insulin secretion from isolated mouse islets. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 11(Suppl 4), 197-201 (2009).3. Gottsch, M.L., Cunningham, M.J., Smith, J.T., et al. A role for kisspeptins in the regulation of gonadotropin secretion in the mouse. Endocrinology 145(9), 4073-4077 (2004). Kisspeptin-54 is a peptide ligand of the orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR54 (Kis = 1.81 and 1.45 nM for rat and human receptors, respectively).1 It is a 54 amino acid peptide encoded by the metastasis suppressor gene KISS-1. Kisspeptin-54 induces calcium mobilization in CHO-K1 cells expressing rat and human receptors (EC50s = 1.39 and 5.47 nM, respectively). It also induces arachidonic acid release in CHO cells expressing rat and human GPR54 in a concentration-dependent manner. Kisspeptin-54 (10-1,000 nM) inhibits insulin secretion from isolated mouse pancreatic β-cells in the presence of 2.8 mM, but not 11.1 mM, glucose.2 Kisspeptin-54 (1-5 nmol, i.c.v.) increases serum levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) in mice, an effect which is reversed by the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GNRH) antagonist acycline.3 References1. Kotani, M., Detheux, M., Vandenbogaerde, A.L., et al. The metastasis suppressor gene KiSS-1 encodes kisspeptins, the natural ligands of the orphan G protein-coupled receptor GPR54. J. Biol. Chem. 276(37), 34631-34636 (2001).2. Vikman, J., and Ahrén, B. Inhibitory effect of kisspeptins on insulin secretion from isolated mouse islets. Diabetes Obes. Metab. 11(Suppl 4), 197-201 (2009).3. Gottsch, M.L., Cunningham, M.J., Smith, J.T., et al. A role for kisspeptins in the regulation of gonadotropin secretion in the mouse. Endocrinology 145(9), 4073-4077 (2004).

Brain Natriuretic Peptide (BNP) (1-32), rat is a 32 amino acid polypeptide secreted by the ventricles of the heart in response to excessive stretching of heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes).Brain natriuretic peptide (type B natriuretic peptide) was origin

PAR2 (1-6) amide is a synthetic peptide agonist of proteinase-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) that corresponds to residues 1-6 of the amino terminal tethered ligand sequence of human PAR2 and residues 37-42 of the full-length sequence.1It binds to NCTC 2544 cells expressing human PAR2 (Ki= 9.64 μM in a radioligand binding assay) and induces calcium mobilization in the same cells (EC50= 0.075 μM).2PAR2 (1-6) amide (100 μM) reduces colony formation of A549 lung cancer cells.1It induces superoxide production and degranulation in isolated human eosinophils when used at a concentration of 500 μM.3PAR2 (1-6) amide (5 μmol/kg) induces tear secretion in rats when used in combination with amastatin .4 1.Bohm, S.K., Kong, W., Bromme, D., et al.Molecular cloning, expression and potential functions of the human proteinase-activated receptor-2Biochem. J.314(Pt 3)1009-1016(1996) 2.Kanke, T., Ishiwata, H., Kabeya, M., et al.Binding of a highly potent protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) activating peptide, [3H]2-furoyl-LIGRL-NH2, to human PAR2Br. J. Pharmacol.145(2)255-263(2005) 3.Miike, S., McWilliam, A.S., and Kita, H.Trypsin induces activation and inflammatory mediator release from human eosinophils through protease-activated receptor-2J. Immunol.167(11)6615-6622(2001) 4.Nishikawa, H., Kawai, K., Tanaka, M., et al.Protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2)-related peptides induce tear secretion in rats: Involvement of PAR-2 and non-PAR-2 mechanismsJ. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther.312(2)324-331(2005)

Human growth hormone-releasing factor stimulates GH production and release by binding to the GHRH Receptor (GHRHR) on cells in the anterior pituitary.Growth hormone-releasing hormone is a hormone produced in the hypothalamus. The main role of growth hormo

Osteostatin (1-5) amide (human, bovine, dog, horse, mouse, rabbit, rat), also known as Human PTHrP (107-111) amide, is a C-terminal fragment of parathyroid hormone-related protein that inhibits bone resorption [1] [2].

Thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1)-derived CD36 binding motif is a bioactive peptide cyclized by a disulfide bond, critical for TSP-1-CD36 interaction. Involved in cancer metastasis, tumor adhesion, and angiogenesis, this matrix-bound glycoprotein-origin peptide competitively inhibits platelet aggregation and tumor metastasis.

Dynorphin A (1-10) (TFA), an endogenous opioid neuropeptide, binds in the transmembrane domain of the κ-receptor.

Myelin Basic Protein (1-11), an encephalitogenic epitope of MBP, facilitates the induction of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) [1] [2].

Thrombospondin-1 (1016-1021) (human, bovine, mouse) is a truncated peptide derived from Thrombospondin-1, lacking CD47-binding activity [1].

β-Defensin-1 is a peptide with antimicrobial properties that protects the skin and mucosal membranes of the respiratory, genitourinary, and gastrointestinal tracts.1It inhibits the growth ofB. adolescentis,L. acidophilus,B. breve,B. vulgatus,L. fermentum,B. longum, andS. thermophilusin an antimicrobial radial diffusion assay.2β-Defensin-1 also inhibits the growth of periodontopathogenic and cariogenic bacteria, includingP. gingivalisandS. salivarius, and of susceptibleM. tuberculosisH37Rv but not of resistantM. tuberculosisRM22 when used at a concentration of 128 μg/ml.3,4It blocks human and mouse Kv1.3 voltage-gated potassium channels (IC50s = 11.8 and 13.2 μM, respectively).5Overexpression of β-defensin-1 in the human oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell lines HSC-3, UM-1, and SCC-9 increases migration and invasion but not proliferation.6 1.Lehrer, R.I.Primate defensinsNat. Rev. Microbiol.2(9)727-738(2004) 2.Schroeder, B.O., Ehmann, D., Precht, J.C., et al.Paneth cell α-defensin 6 (HD-6) is an antimicrobial peptideMucosal Immunol.8(3)661-671(2015) 3.Ouhara, K., Komatsuzawa, H., Yamada, S., et al.Susceptibilities of periodontopathogenic and cariogenic bacteria to antibacterial peptides, β-defensins and LL37, produced by human epithelial cellsJ. Antimicrob. Chemother.55(6)888-896(2005) 4.Fattorini, L., Gennaro, R., Zanetti, M., et al.In vitro activity of protegrin-1 and beta-defensin-1, alone and in combination with isoniazid, against Mycobacterium tuberculosisPeptides25(7)1075-1077(2004) 5.Feng, J., Xie, Z., Yang, W., et al.Human beta-defensin 1, a new animal toxin-like blocker of potassium channelToxicon113(2016) 6.Han, Q., Wang, R., Sun, C., et al.Human beta-defensin-1 suppresses tumor migration and invasion and is an independent predictor for survival of oral squamous cell carcinoma patientsPLoS One9(3)e91867(2014)

Glucagon is a peptide hormone, produced by pancreatic α-cells. Glucagon reduces the activity of HNF-4. Glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis. Glucagon enhances HNF4α phosphorylation.

Gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) is a neuropeptide that stimulates gastrin release. It binds to (Ki = 300 nM) and stimulates amylase secretion in rat pancreatic AR42J cells (EC50 = 0.3 nM). GRP increases proliferation of human liver carcinoma HepG2 and MHCC97H cells but does not affect the proliferation of normal HL-7702 liver cells at a concentration of 1 nM. In vivo, GRP (0.35 nmol/kg/h) increases both pancreatic exocrine secretion and pancreatic polypeptide (PP) release in rats. It dose-dependently stimulates gastrin, pancreatic amylase, lipase, bilirubin, and acid output and induces gallbladder contraction in humans when administered at doses ranging from 1 to 27 pmol/kg per hour.

Brain Derived Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (1-24) (FGF basic 1-24), a synthetic peptide, exhibits anti-bacterial and anti-HBV properties, finding application in infectious and immune disease research [1].

Biotinyl-Glucagon (1-29), encompassing human, bovine, and porcine versions, is a biotinylated form of glucagon. This peptide hormone, synthesized by the pancreas's α-cells, elevates glucose and fatty acid levels in the bloodstream [1] [2].

Neuropeptide Y (1-24) (human) is a neuropeptide that inhibits the electrically stimulated twitch response in rat vas deferens and activates neurons in the rat CA3 region of the dorsal hippocampus in vivo following N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) induction [1] [2].

Acetyl-ACTH (4-24) (human, bovine, rat), a proopiomelanocortin (POMC) peptide fragment, functions as an agonist at the MC-1 receptor [1]. This compound encompasses a sequence present in adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH), which serves as the precursor for α-MSH, illustrating its significant role in the POMC peptide family.

Acetyl-ACTH (7-24) (human, bovine, rat) effectively inhibits the secretion of corticosterone and aldosterone triggered by ACTH stimulation [1].

(Des-Glu5)-ACTH (1-24) (human, bovine, rat) is an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) analogue, synthesized by the anterior pituitary gland to regulate cortisol and androgen production [1]. This polypeptide tropic hormone variant differs from ACTH by the absence of glutamic acid at the fifth position.

Human Growth Hormone-Releasing Factor TFA, also known as Growth Hormone-Releasing Factor Human TFA, is a hypothalamic polypeptide that promotes the production and release of growth hormone (GH) through its interaction with the Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone Receptor (GHRHR) on anterior pituitary cells [1].

Acetyl β-endorphin (1-26) is a neuropeptide found in rat hippocampus, brain stem, and pituitary. It is also present in the human hypothalamus, where it comprises approximately 4.9% of total β-endorphin peptides. Acetyl β-endorphin (1-26) is produced through posttranslational processing of β-endorphin and is processed similarly in rat and human hypothalamus. Levels of acetyl β-endorphin (1-26) increase in the rat pars intermedia and brain stem following chronic administration of haloperidol .

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) (3-36) is a C-terminal fragment of NPY, a neuropeptide involved in controlling appetite, blood pressure, cardiac contractility, and intestinal secretion. NPY (3-36) is an endogenous peptide produced by cleavage of NPY by dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4). It binds selectively to the NPY receptor Y2 (Ki = 0.41 nM in CHP 234 cells) over the Y1 receptor, where it does not bind at concentrations up to 1 μM. NPY (3-36) (0.1 nM) increases migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) by 80% after 12 hours in an in vitro wound closure assay. NPY (3-36) corresponds to residues 3-36 of the human and rat protein sequence.

Osteocalcin (1-49) is a non-collagenous peptide that is secreted by osteoblasts and odontoblasts and comprises 1-2% of the total protein in bone. Secretion of osteocalcin (1-49) is stimulated by 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D and plasma levels increase in diseases that induce dysregulated bone turnover such as osteoporosis, Paget's disease, and primary hyperparathyroidism. Osteocalcin (1-49) is positively correlated with insulin sensitivity and negatively correlated with high blood glucose levels in women. In vitro, osteocalcin induces chemotaxis of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, human peripheral blood monocytes, and rat osteosarcoma cells with osteoblast-like characteristics. It is also expressed by vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) displaying an osteoblast-like phenotype and has been positively associated with calcification of aortic tissue and heart valves in humans.

Amyloid-β (25-35) (Aβ (25-35)) is an 11-residue fragment of the Aβ protein that retains the physical and biological characteristics of the full length peptide. It forms fibrils that react to thioflavin T and Congo red and are organized in a cross-β arrangement of β-strands similar to Aβ (1-40) and Aβ (1-42) fibrils. Aggregated Aβ (25-35) decreases the viability of rat adrenal PC12 cells. It also decreases the viability of primary rat cortical neurons at concentrations ranging from 1 nM to 30 μM. In vivo, intracerebral injection of Aβ (25-35) (20 nmol) in rats induces lesions of neuronal and tissue loss. Aggregated Aβ (25-35) administered intracerebroventricularly to rats induces learning and memory impairments in the Y-maze, novel object recognition, and contextual fear conditioning tests.

ADH-1 trifluoroacetate (Exherin trifluoroacetate) is a cyclic pentapeptide vascular-targeting agent with potential antineoplastic and antiangiogenic activities. ADH-1 selectively and competitively binds to and blocks N-cadherin, which may result in disruption of tumor vasculature, inhibition of tumor cell growth, and the induction of tumor cell and endothelial cell apoptosis.

β-Endorphin (1-27) is an endogenous peptide that binds to μ-, δ-, and κ-opioid receptors (Kis = 5.31, 6.17, and 39.82 nM, respectively, in COS-1 cells expressing rat receptors). It binds to rat and mouse brain membrane preparations (IC50s = 1.1 and 5.7 nM, respectively) and induces chemotaxis of human monocytes in vitro when used at a concentration of 1 nM. Intracerebroventricular administration of β-endorphin (1-27) increases the latency to tail withdrawal in response to thermal stimulation in mice with a median antinociceptive dose (AD50) of 1,500 pmol per animal. It inhibits antinociception induced by β-endorphin in mice in response to thermal stimuli when administered at a dose of 65 pmol per animal. In rats, β-endorphin (1-27) does not affect drug-associated place preference when administered at doses up to 20 μg, i.c.v., but inhibits β-endorphin-induced place preference when administered at a dose of 10 μg per animal.

Galanin (2-11) amide is a synthetic peptide fragment of the neuropeptide galanin and an agonist of the galanin-2 (GAL2) receptor (EC50= 9.32 nM in a fluorescence imaging plate reader assay).1It selectively binds to the GAL2receptor (IC50= 1.76 nM for the rat receptor) over the GAL1receptor (IC50= 879 nM for the human receptor) but does also bind to the GAL3receptor (Ki= 271 nM for the rat receptor).1,2Intracerebroventricular administration of galanin (2-11) amide (1 nmol/animal) decreases immobility in the forced swim test in rats.3It also reduces the hind paw mechanical pain threshold and increases the hind paw cold sensitivity threshold in rats.1

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) (1-28),rat (TFA) is the main circulating forms of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) in rats, which strongly inhibit the secretion of Ang II - stimulated endothelin-1.

Nonapeptide-1 (Melanostatine-5) acetate salt, a peptide hormone, functions as a selective and competitive antagonist of the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) with a binding affinity (K i) of 40 nM. It effectively inhibits α-MSH-induced increases in intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) and melanosome dispersion in melanocytes, showcasing inhibitory concentrations (IC 50) of 2.5 nM and 11 nM, respectively. By inhibiting melanin synthesis, Nonapeptide-1 acetate salt finds application in research related to skin pigmentation, adrenal gland steroid production regulation, and skin cancer [1] [2] [3].

(Des-His^6)-ACTH (1-24) (human, bovine, rat) is an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) analog. Produced by the anterior pituitary gland, ACTH is a polypeptide tropic hormone that regulates the production of cortisol and androgens [1].

Acetyl-ACTH (3-24) (human, bovine, rat) is a segment derived from the proopiomelanocortin (POMC) peptide, functioning as an agonist at the MC-1 receptor [1]. This compound encompasses adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH), a precursor to α-MSH, illustrating its role within the spectrum of POMC peptides.

Tyr-α-CGRP is an N-terminal extended tyrosinated analogue of α-calcitonin gene-related peptide . It binds to amylin receptors AMY1 and AMY3 in COS-7 cells expressing the human receptors (IC50s = 141 and 1.86 nM, respectively). Tyr-α-CGRP also binds to and stimulates cAMP accumulation in rat L6 myocytes (IC50 = 4 nM; EC50 = 12 nM). It also binds to rat brain and spleen membrane preparations (IC50s = 0.2 and 0.5 nM, respectively), induces positive chronotropic and inotropic effects in isolated right and left guinea pig atria (EC50s = 282 and 74 nM, respectively), and inhibits the twitch response in rat vas deferens (EC50 = 1.9 nM).

Brain-derived acidic fibroblast growth factor (brain-derived aFGF) (1-11) is a peptide fragment of brain-derived aFGF. Brain-derived aFGF is an angiogenic vascular endothelial cell mitogen produced in bovine brain that has sequence homology to interleukin-1. aFGF (1-11) corresponds to amino acid residues 1-11 of the full length peptide.

β-Defensin-2 is a peptide with antimicrobial properties that protects the skin and mucosal membranes of the respiratory, genitourinary, and gastrointestinal tracts.1It inhibits the growth of periodontopathogenic and cariogenic bacteria, includingP. gingivalisandS. salivarius.2β-Defensin-2 (30 μg/ml) stimulates gene expression and production of IL-6, IL-10, CXCL10, CCL2, MIP-3α, and RANTES by keratinocytes.3It also stimulates calcium mobilization, migration, and proliferation of keratinocytes when used at concentrations of 30, 10, and 40 μg/ml, respectively. β-Defensin-2 induces IL-31 production by human peripheral blood-derived mast cellsin vitrowhen used at a concentration of 10 μg/ml and by rat mast cellsin vivofollowing a 500 ng intradermal dose.4Expression of β-defensin-2 is increased in psoriatic skin and chronic wounds.5,6 1.Lehrer, R.I.Primate defensinsNat. Rev. Microbiol.2(9)727-738(2004) 2.Ouhara, K., Komatsuzawa, H., Yamada, S., et al.Susceptibilities of periodontopathogenic and cariogenic bacteria to antibacterial peptides, β-defensins and LL37, produced by human epithelial cellsJ. Antimicrob. Chemother.55(6)888-896(2005) 3.Niyonsaba, F., Ushio, H., Nakano, N., et al.Antimicrobial peptides human β-defensins stimulate epidermal keratinocyte migration, proliferation and production of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokinesJ. Invest. Dermatol.127(3)594-604(2007) 4.Niyonsaba, F., Ushio, H., Hara, M., et al.Antimicrobial peptides human β-defensins and cathelicidin LL-37 induce the secretion of a pruritogenic cytokine IL-31 by human mast cellsJ. Immunol.184(7)3526-3534(2010) 5.Huh, W.-K., Oono, T., Shirafuji, Y., et al.Dynamic alteration of human β-defensin 2 localization from cytoplasm to intercellular space in psoriatic skinJ. Mol. Med. (Berl.)80(10)678-684(2002) 6.Butmarc, J., Yufit, T., Carson, P., et al.Human β-defensin-2 expression is increased in chronic woundsWound Repair Regen.12(4)439-443(2004)

Adrenomedullin (22-52) is a C-terminal fragment of adrenomedullin (1-52) . In vitro, adrenomedullin (22-52) reduces basal corticosterone production in a mixture of rat adrenocortical and adrenomedulllary cells. It also reverses increases in ACTH-stimulated corticosterone production induced by adrenomedullin (1-52). Adrenomedulin (22-52) (0.5 and 5 μg/kg/min) has no effect on basal regional cerebral blood flow but reverses increases in regional cerebral blood flow induced by rat adrenomedullin in rats. Unlike adrenomedullin (1-52), adrenomedullin (22-52) has no effect on mesenteric arterial perfusion pressure in cats.

β-Defensin-3 is a peptide with antimicrobial properties that protects the skin and mucosal membranes of the respiratory, genitourinary, and gastrointestinal tracts. It inhibits the growth of the periodontopathogenic and cariogenic bacteria F. nucleatum, S. mutans, S. sobrinus, S. salivarius, and L. casei (MICs = 12.5-100 mg/l). It also inhibits the growth of S. aureus, S. pyogenes, P. aeruginosa, E. coli, and C. albicans. β-Defensin-3 stimulates gene expression and production of IL-6, IL-10, CXCL10, CCL2, MIP-3α, and RANTES by keratinocytes when used at a concentration of 30 μg/ml. It also stimulates calcium mobilization, migration, and proliferation of keratinocytes when used at concentrations of 30, 5, and 20 μg/ml, respectively. β-Defensin-3 induces IL-31 production by human peripheral blood-derived mast cells in vitro when used at a concentration of 10 μg/ml and by rat mast cells in vivo following a 500 ng intradermal dose.

Neuromedin U (NMU) is a neuropeptide first demonstrated to drive smooth muscle contraction.1Translated as a 174 amino acid propeptide, NMU is cleaved to different lengths in different animals. It has diverse receptor-mediated rolesin vivo, as it regulates feeding, vasoconstriction, nociception, and bone remodeling and contributes to obesity, cancer and septic shock.2,2NMU-25 is the active form of NMU in humans. It binds with high affinity to receptors on human left ventricle and coronary artery (KDs = 0.26 and 0.11 nM, respectively), eliciting endothelium-independent vasoconstriction.3NMU-25 also suppresses glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in human islets, and this effect is lost in NMU R165W mutants, resulting in early-onset obesity.4 1.Mitchell, J.D., Maguire, J.J., and Davenport, A.P.Emerging pharmacology and physiology of neuromedin U and the structurally related peptide neuromedin SBritish Journal of Pharmacology15887-103(2009) 2.Greenwood, H.C., Bloom, S.R., and Murphy, K.G.Peptides and their potential role in the treatment of diabetes and obesityRev.Diabet.Stud.8(3)355-368(2011) 3.Mitchell, J.D., Maguire, J.J., Kuc, R.E., et al.Expression and vasoconstrictor function of anorexigenic peptides neuromedin U-25 and S in the human cardiovascular systemCardiovascular Research81353-361(2009) 4.Alfa, R.W., Park, S., Skelly, K.R., et al.Suppression of insulin production and secretion by a decretin hormoneCell Metabolism21(2)323-333(2015)