Chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) is an oligomer of β-(1→4)-linked D-glucosamine. It has the ability to activate AMPK and simultaneously inhibit inflammatory signaling pathways, including NF-κB and MAPK.

GM1a Ganglioside oligosaccharide, a semisynthetic derivative of ganglioside GM1, serves as the natural receptor for cholera toxin and is crucial for both general growth regulation and the coupling of hormone-induced responses [1].

Fructo-oligosaccharide DP14, an oligosaccharide derived from Atractylodes lancea [1], represents a specific polysaccharide subclass with a degree of polymerization of 14.

Fructo-oligosaccharide DP8/GF7 (Fructo-oligosaccharide DP8 / GF7) is a fructooligosaccharide (FOS) with a degree of polymerization (DP=8). It consists of seven fructose units connected by (2→1)-β-glycosidic bonds, featuring a single D-glucosyl unit at the non-reducing end.

Fructo-oligosaccharide DP9/GF8 (Fructo-oligosaccharide DP9 / GF8) belongs to fructooligosaccharides (FOS) with the degree of polymerization (DP=9).

Fructo-oligosaccharide DP13 is an inulin-type fructan that can be isolated from Morinda officinalis [1].

Fructo-oligosaccharide DP7/GF6 (Fructoheptasaccharide) belongs to fructooligosaccharides (FOS) with degree of polymerization (DP=7).

Fructo-oligosaccharide DP11/GF10 is a fructooligosaccharide (FOS) compound with a degree of polymerization (DP) equal to 11. FOS consists of 10 fructose units connected by (2→1)-β-glycosidic bonds, with a single D-glucosyl unit present at the non-reducing end.

Fructo-oligosaccharide DP12/GF11 is a member of fructooligosaccharides (FOS) characterized by a degree of polymerization (DP) of 12. FOS compounds consist of 11 fructose units connected by (2→1)-β-glycosidic bonds, with a lone D-glucosyl unit located at the non-reducing end.

Fructo-oligosaccharide DP10/GF9 is a compound classified as a fructooligosaccharide (FOS) with a degree of polymerization (DP) of 10. FOS consists of a chain of 9 fructose units connected by (2→1)-β-glycosidic bonds, with a lone D-glucosyl unit located at the non-reducing end.

Fructooligosaccharides is a levorotatory monosaccharide and an isomer of glucose.

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) is a unique component of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria and consists of three regions: lipid A, oligosaccharide core, and O-specific polysaccharide (O-antigen). Lipopolysaccharides help maintain the integrity of the outer cell membrane and protect bacteria from damage by bile salts and lipid antibiotics. Lipopolysaccharides is a highly immunogenic antigen that can enhance immune responses and can be used for inflammation model construction.

Raffinose (Melitriose) is an indigestible short-chain oligosaccharide, a trisaccharide composed of galactose, glucose and fructose, found in many plants. It can be hydrolyzed by α-galactosidase (α-GAL) to D-galactose and sucrose.

Monofucosyllacto-N-hexaose I (MFLNH I) constitutes a human milk oligosaccharide (HMO) [1].

Monofucosyllacto-N-hexaose III (MFLNH III) is a neutral human milk oligosaccharide (HMO) [1].

Isoglobotetraose, also known as Globoisotetraose, is the oligosaccharide component of human glycosphingolipids, synthesized as globotetraose (GalNAcβ1→3Galα1→4Galβ1→4Glc) or isoglobotetraose (GalNAcβ1→3Galα1→3Galβ1→4Glc) [1].

Disialyllacto-N-tetraose, a human milk oligosaccharide, has been shown to prevent necrotizing enterocolitis in neonatal rats [1].

A-Trisaccharide, also known as blood-group A trisaccharide, is an oligosaccharide found in the urine of individuals who are secretors of blood group A [1].

Lacto-N-fucopentaose V (LNFP V), a novel pentasaccharide, is an oligosaccharide identified in human milk and various biofluids [1].

Chitopentaose pentahydrochloride is an anti-inflammatory chitosan oligosaccharide that functions as a substrate for the gene encoding chitinase B (FjchiB).

Chitohexaose hexahydrochloride is a chitosan oligosaccharide compound that possesses anti-inflammatory properties. It exerts its anti-inflammatory effect by binding to the active sites of TLR4, thereby inhibiting inflammation induced by LPS. This compound has been supported by references [1] and [2].

Chitoheptaose heptahydrochloride is a chitosan oligosaccharide with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, and cardioprotective properties. It effectively promotes the growth and photosynthesis parameters of wheat seedlings[1][2].

Blood group A pentasaccharide (A-Pentasaccharide), an oligosaccharide found in urine, has the ability to impede the attachment of the anti-A antibody to the blood group A antigen [1].

Sialyllacto-N-tetraose b, a sialylated oligosaccharide, naturally occurs in mammalian milk [1].

Lacto-N-difucohexaose II (LNDFH II), an oligosaccharide found in human milk, plays a crucial role in infant health [1].

Celloheptaose, an oligosaccharide composed of seven glucose units, serves as a substrate for polysaccharide monooxygenases (PMOs), facilitating the production of oxidized cellulo-oligosaccharides [1] [2].

Cellooctaose, an oligosaccharide comprising eight glucose units, serves as an economical polysaccharide substrate in fermentation processes to support the growth of Lactococcus lactis recombinant strains. Additionally, cellooctaose acts as a substrate for the enzyme beta-glucosidase (E.C. 3.2.1.21) [1] [2].

Chitobiose, a dimer of β-1,4-linked glucosamine units and a chitosan oligosaccharide, exhibits oral activity and possesses significant antioxidant properties [1][2].

PNGase F, a glycosidase, catalyzes the cleavage of an internal glycoside bond in an oligosaccharide. PNGase F removes nearly all N-linked oligosaccharides from glycoproteins [1] [2] .

Cellopentaose is a cellulose-derived penta-oligosaccharide [1].

6′-Galactosyllactose, a predominant oligosaccharide in human milk, is instrumental in synthesizing human milk oligosaccharides, including 3′-Galactosyllactose and 4′-Galactosyllactose. This compound has been shown to mitigate inflammation in human T84, NCM-460, and H4 cells as well as in intestinal tissues [1].

Lacto-N-fucopentaose I is a milk oligosaccharide.

Aplanin is an Oligosaccharide containing glucose as monomeric unit with an additional N-containing moiety.

Difucosyllacto-N-neohexaose, an oligosaccharide, is isolatable from human milk [1].

Ac4GalNAlk, a weakly alkyne-labeled reagent for metabolic oligosaccharide engineering (MOE), facilitates the detection of protein glycosylation by promoting nucleotide-sugar biosynthesis and enhancing bioorthogonal cell surface markers. It is activated by cellular biosynthetic machinery into nucleotide sugars, subsequently enabling the tracing of glycoproteins in bioorthogonal chemistry [1].

3-Fucosyllactose (3-Fucosyl-D-lactose), a predominant fucosylated oligosaccharide in human breast milk, exhibits prebiotic, immunomodulating, neonatal brain development, and antimicrobial functions.

β-Gentiobiose is a natural oligosaccharide that promotes fruit ripening.

Isomaltotetraose, a constituent of isomalto-oligosaccharide (IMO) derived from DexKQ, is known to stimulate the synthesis of dextranase.

β-Gentiobiose is a natural oligosaccharide that promotes fruit ripening.

6'-Sialyllactose consists of the monosaccharide N-acetylneuraminic acid linked to the galactosyl subunit of lactose at the 6 position. This connection is at the 3 position in the related compound, 3’-sialyllactose. Both are major milk oligosaccharides that avidly bind several viral strains, including strains of influenza, HIV-1, reovirus, and polyomavirus.[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6] These compounds can be used to differentiate and characterize the binding domains of viruses that recognize N-acetylneuraminic acid-capped cell surface receptors. They are also used as analytical reference standards for quantification in samples such as milk or colostrum. Reference：[1]. Duncan, P.I., Raymond, F., Fuerholz, A., et al. Sialic acid utilisation and synthesis in the neonatal rat revisited. PLoS One 4(12), 1-10 (2009).[2]. Sprenger, N., and Duncan, P.I. Sialic acid utilization. Adv.Nutr. 3(3), 392S-397S (2012).[3]. Iskarpatyoti, J.A., Morse, E.A., McClung, R.P., et al. Serotype-specific differences in inhibition of reovirus infectivity by human-milk glycans are determined by viral attachment protein σ1. Virology 433(2), 489-497 (2012).[4]. Neu, U., Khan, Z.M., Schuch, B., et al. Structures of B-lymphotropic polyomavirus VP1 in complex with oligosaccharide ligands. PLoS Pathogens 9(10), 1-10 (2013).[5]. Rosa Borges, A., Wieczorek, L., Johnson, B., et al. Multivalent dendrimeric compounds containing carbohydrates expressed on immune cells inhibit infection by primary isolates of HIV-1. Virology 408(1), 80-88 (2010).[6]. Wu, W., and Air, G.M. Binding of influenza viruses to sialic acids: Reassortant viruses with A/NWS/33 hemagglutinin bind to α2,8-linked sialic acid. Virology 325(2), 340-350 (2004).

Trigalacturonic acid is an oligosaccharide that inhibits proteinase activity in tomato plants (ED50 = 2.6 μg/plant).

Ganglioside GM1is a monosialylated ganglioside and the prototypic ganglioside for those containing one sialic acid residue.1,2It is found in a large variety of cells, including immune cells and neurons, and is enriched in lipid rafts in the cell membrane.3It associates with growth factor receptors, including TrkA, TrkB, and the GDNF receptor complex containing Ret and GFRα, and is required for TrkA expression on the cell surface. Ganglioside GM1interacts with other proteins to increase calcium influx, affecting various calcium-dependent processes, including inducing neuronal outgrowth during differentiation. Ganglioside GM1acts as a receptor for cholera toxin, which binds to its oligosaccharide group, facilitating toxin cell entry into epithelial cells of the jejunum.4,5Similarly, it is bound by the heat-labile enterotoxin fromE. coliin the pathogenesis of traveler's diarrhea.6Ganglioside GM1gangliosidosis, characterized by a deficiency in GM1-β-galactosidase, the enzyme that degrades ganglioside GM1, leads to accumulation of the gangliosides GM1and GA1in neurons and can be fatal in infants.1Levels of ganglioside GM1are decreased in the substantia nigra pars compacta in postmortem brain from patients with Parkinson's disease.3Ganglioside GM1mixture contains a mixture of ovine ganglioside GM1molecular species with primarily C18:0 fatty acyl chain lengths, among various others. [Matreya, LLC. Catalog No. 1544] 1.Kolter, T.Ganglioside biochemistryISRN Biochem.506160(2012) 2.Mocchetti, I.Exogenous gangliosides, neuronal plasticity and repair, and the neurotrophinsCell Mol. Life Sci.62(19-20)2283-2294(2005) 3.Ledeen, R.W., and Wu, G.The multi-tasked life of GM1 ganglioside, a true factotum of natureTrends Biochem. Sci.40(7)407-418(2015) 4.Turnbull, W.B., Precious, B.L., and Homans, S.W.Dissecting the cholera toxin-ganglioside GM1 interaction by isothermal titration calorimetryJ. Am. Chem. Soc.126(4)1047-1054(2004) 5.Blank, N., Schiller, M., Krienke, S., et al.Cholera toxin binds to lipid rafts but has a limited specificity for ganglioside GM1Immunol. Cell Biol.85(5)378-382(2007) 6.Minke, W.E., Roach, C., Hol, W.G., et al.Structure-based exploration of the ganglioside GM1 binding sites of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin and cholera toxin for the discovery of receptor antagonistsBiochemistry38(18)5684-5692(1999)

Chitinase has partial lysozyme activity and is widely found in bacteria, fungi, animals and some plants . Chitinase belongs to the glycosyl hydrolase family. Chitinase catalyzes chito-oligosaccharide hydrolysis [1] .

D-Panose is a PAN-type oligosaccharide derived from isomaltooligosaccharides (IMOs) and serves as a food ingredient.

Lipopolysaccharides, Escherichiacoli (E. coli O111:B4) is a unique component of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria, consisting of three regions: lipid A, oligosaccharide core and O-specific polysaccharide (O-antigen). Lipopolysaccharides, Escherichiacoli helps maintain the integrity of the outer cell membrane and protects bacteria from damage by bile salts and lipid antibiotics. Lipopolysaccharides, Escherichiacoli is a highly immunogenic antigen that can enhance immune responses and can be used for inflammation model construction.

2'-FUCOSYLLACTOSE (2'-Fucosyl-D-lactose) is a fucose-containing oligosaccharide.

3-Deoxy-1,2;5,6-di-O-isopropylidene-D-glucofuranose is a polysaccharide oligosaccharide. It is used in glycosylation synthesis and can be custom synthesized for use as a carbohydrate in drugs. It has antiviral activity against Epstein-Barr virus by inhibiting viral protein synthesis.

Chitobiose dihydrochloride is a chitosan oligosaccharide consisting of β-1,4-linked glucosamine units.

D(+)-Raffinose pentahydrate (D-Raffinose pentahydrate) is a trisugar composed of fructose, galactose and glucose that occurs naturally in a variety of vegetables and grains. D(+)-Raffinose pentahydrate is a functional oligosaccharide.