α-toxin

ShK toxin, isolated from the Caribbean sea anemone (Stichodactyla helianthus), is an inhibitor of the voltage-dependent potassium channel (Kv1.3 channel). It competes with dendrotoxin I and α-dendrotoxin in binding to rat brain synaptosomal membranes and promotes acetylcholine release. Additionally, ShK toxin reduces K+ currents in cultured rat dorsal root ganglion neurons and inhibits T lymphocyte proliferation [1] [2].

Scorpion toxin Tf2, a β-scorpion toxin first identified in the venom of the Brazilian scorpion Tityus fasciolatus, acts as an activator of the neuronal voltage-gated sodium (Nav) subtype Nav1.3, associated with epilepsy and nociception. It increases hNav1.3 activation voltage, prompting channel opening at resting membrane potentials [1].

Aa1 toxin, sourced from Androctonus australis Garzoni venom, is a neurotoxic peptide that specifically blocks potassium channels and has applications in neurological disease research [1].

Tetanus Toxin (830–844), a biologically active peptide and a tetanus toxin-derived peptide TT830–844 CD4+ T-cell epitope, exhibits promiscuity by binding to a wide spectrum of HLA–DRB molecules. Consequently, it is anticipated to elicit CD4+ T-cell responses across a broad segment of the human population.

Cn2 toxin, a β-toxin, interacts with the voltage-sensing domain of voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV) [1].

Wasabi Receptor Toxin (WaTx) activates TRPA1 through prolonged channel openings while reducing Ca2+ permeability. This compound has potential applications in studying both acute and persistent pain [1].

Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin-1 (TSST-1) (58-78) serves as a T cell proliferation activator by promoting the dose-dependent in vitro proliferation of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and is used in research on inflammation, immunity, and cancer [1].

Tetanus toxin (830-843) from tetanus toxoid is a universal human tetanus toxin T cell epitope. It induces T-cell activation and is used as a helper peptide in vaccinations.

Muscarinic toxin 7 (MT7) is a peptide exhibiting selective, noncompetitive antagonistic activity at the muscarinic M1 receptor [1].

Micrurotoxin 1 (MmTx1 toxin) acts as an allosteric modulator of GABA A receptors, enhancing the receptor's sensitivity to its agonist [1].

Tetanus toxin 830-843 acetate (Tetanus toxin 830-843 acetate (119260-99-0 free base)) from tetanus toxoid is a universal human tetanus toxin T cell epitope. It induces T-cell activation and is used as a helper peptide in vaccinations.

δ-Theraphotoxin-Hm1a is a selective NaV1.1 activator that induces pain and touch sensitivity, with potential applications in irritable bowel syndrome research [1].

Muscarinic toxin 3 (MT3), a potent non-competitive antagonist of mAChR and adrenoceptors, exhibits pIC50 values of 6.71 for M1, 8.79 for M4, 8.86 for α1A, 7.57 for α1B, 8.13 for α1D, 8.49 for α2A, <6.5 for α2B, and 7.29 for α2C receptors. MT3 notably demonstrates significant adrenoceptor activity [1].

Ssm Spooky Toxin, derived from Scolopendra mutilans, exhibits potent lethality affecting both hematological and respiratory systems primarily through the inhibition of KCNQ (voltage-gated potassium channel family 7) channels. It demonstrates IC50 values of 2.8 μM for Kv7.4, 5.26 μM for Kv1.3, and 0.1-0.3 M for the Shal channel, respectively. Additionally, this toxin impedes cytokine production by selectively targeting the KV1.3 channel in T cells and is crucial for the centipede's circulatory system functions [1] [2] [3].

Vm24-toxin, a peptide toxin isolated from the Mexican scorpion Vaejovis mexicanus smithi, serves as an inhibitor of the Kv1.3 potassium channel [1].

MmTx2 toxin, extracted from the venom of the coral snake, serves as a modulator of the GABA A receptor, increasing its responsiveness to agonists. This property renders it a useful tool in researching neurological disorders, including epilepsy, schizophrenia, and chronic pain [1].

Spinoxin, a 34-residue peptide neurotoxin extracted from the venom of Heterometrus spinifer, is characterized by four disulfide bridges. It acts as a potent inhibitor of the Kv1.3 potassium channel with an IC 50 value of 63 nM. This compound is regarded as a promising molecular target for the diagnosis and treatment of a range of autoimmune disorders and cancers [1].

β-Defensin-1 is a peptide with antimicrobial properties that protects the skin and mucosal membranes of the respiratory, genitourinary, and gastrointestinal tracts.1It inhibits the growth ofB. adolescentis,L. acidophilus,B. breve,B. vulgatus,L. fermentum,B. longum, andS. thermophilusin an antimicrobial radial diffusion assay.2β-Defensin-1 also inhibits the growth of periodontopathogenic and cariogenic bacteria, includingP. gingivalisandS. salivarius, and of susceptibleM. tuberculosisH37Rv but not of resistantM. tuberculosisRM22 when used at a concentration of 128 μg/ml.3,4It blocks human and mouse Kv1.3 voltage-gated potassium channels (IC50s = 11.8 and 13.2 μM, respectively).5Overexpression of β-defensin-1 in the human oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell lines HSC-3, UM-1, and SCC-9 increases migration and invasion but not proliferation.6 1.Lehrer, R.I.Primate defensinsNat. Rev. Microbiol.2(9)727-738(2004) 2.Schroeder, B.O., Ehmann, D., Precht, J.C., et al.Paneth cell α-defensin 6 (HD-6) is an antimicrobial peptideMucosal Immunol.8(3)661-671(2015) 3.Ouhara, K., Komatsuzawa, H., Yamada, S., et al.Susceptibilities of periodontopathogenic and cariogenic bacteria to antibacterial peptides, β-defensins and LL37, produced by human epithelial cellsJ. Antimicrob. Chemother.55(6)888-896(2005) 4.Fattorini, L., Gennaro, R., Zanetti, M., et al.In vitro activity of protegrin-1 and beta-defensin-1, alone and in combination with isoniazid, against Mycobacterium tuberculosisPeptides25(7)1075-1077(2004) 5.Feng, J., Xie, Z., Yang, W., et al.Human beta-defensin 1, a new animal toxin-like blocker of potassium channelToxicon113(2016) 6.Han, Q., Wang, R., Sun, C., et al.Human beta-defensin-1 suppresses tumor migration and invasion and is an independent predictor for survival of oral squamous cell carcinoma patientsPLoS One9(3)e91867(2014)

Margatoxin TFA, an alpha-KTx scorpion toxin isolated from Centruroides margaritatus venom, is a 39-amino-acid peptide that serves as a high-affinity inhibitor of Kv1.3 (Kd = 11.7 pM). It also inhibits Kv1.2 (Kd = 6.4 pM) and Kv1.1 (Kd = 4.2 nM), making it a valuable tool for ion channel research [1] [2].

Alpha-Conotoxin EIIB is a peptide toxin derived from Conus ermineus that selectively binds to neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) with a dissociation constant (Ki) of 2.2 nM. This compound is utilized in neurological research, including the study of schizophrenia, drug addiction, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease [1].

Fasciculin-I, a toxin isolated from mamba venom, exerts its toxicity primarily by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Additionally, it impedes the action of α-neurotoxins on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and neutralizes cardiac toxins that interact with cell membranes [1].